Taylorism free essay sample

Taylorism Scientific management, also known as Taylorism, was an innovative theory that maximized production efficiency within the manufacturing industries in the late 19th century. The main goal of this management theory was to improve economic efficiency, especially labor productivity. The way it worked was that scientific management removed autonomy of skilled workers, but rather it simplified Job tasks so that Job could be performed even by unskilled workers who could be easily trained. Before scientific management, workers had to learn necessary skills in a long ime period until they become skilled enough. However, all these started when Fredrick Taylor, the person who invented this theory, noticed inefficiency or soldiering in the steel industries. Although scientific management seems to have succeeded in transforming inefficiency into efficiency and only have good sides due to its effects, it was a highly controversial subject in many areas. In the steel industry, Taylor observed inefficiency among workers where they worked far below their capacity. We will write a custom essay sample on Taylorism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It did not matter if the workers were smart, because ven smart workers tended to work far below their capacity and did not put enough effort for several reasons. They were basically unmotivated. He later found out that employees that are forced to work meaningless and repetitive tasks usually perform at the slowest rate. There were some reasons behind its slowness. One of the main reasons would be workers tend to think that if they work at their best abilities and become more productive, fewer of them will be needed thus Jobs will be eliminated. One another reason was non-incentive wage system back in the 19th century. This non-incentive wage system ultimately discouraged workers to work with their full potential, because they get paid the same amount whether they work fast or slow. Also, through the non-incentive wage system, workers tried to convince their employers that slow paced work is better, because they thought if they start working fast, they feared that would become a new standard of employers. In order to resolve problems arisen from soldiering and improve efficiency, Taylor constructed experiments to determine the best level of tasks for each Job and what is necessary o perform the tasks. Fredrick Taylor strongly believed that scientific methods will minimize these problems above and increase efficiency more than the initiative and incentive method would work. Although the initiative and incentive method offered incentives to good workers so that work efficiency increases, but responsibility of how to figure out things was still placed on workers. To prove his methods work, he firstly performed an experiment called time studies (time and motion studies) in order to determine the best way to perform Jobs. It used stopwatches to time workers sequence of motions. Basically he proved through the experiment that even though workers are incentivized to do extra works, lets say extra move of more tons per day, they would become exhausted after a few hours, because of the physical capability. extra amounts, workers are able to work extra without being tired and exhausted. Also it suggested that employees should be selected according to how well they are suited for a particular Job. After Fredrick Taylor experimented for a long time with his scientific management, e finally concluded some principles in order to achieve his original goal: to improve productivity in labor. One of them would be replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks. Second thing would be scientifically select, train, and develop each workers rather than Just leaving them to train themselves. Again, each worker has to do what they are good at in order to maximize its productivity and efficiency in labor. He also thought not only implement scientific method is important, but he thought cooperating with the workers to nsure that the scientifically developed methods are being followed is also important. Obviously, scientific management is considered to be the reason why industries were able to improve themselves along with improving efficiency. And it is obvious to say that the scientific management has affected the societys work environment positively. For instance, this principle was implemented in many factories, often increasing labor productivity. Its success even affected a known man Henry Ford and his automobile factories. Even average families in households egan to do household tasks based on the principles of time and motion studies. However, although scientific management is known to improve labor efficiency, it added monotony to workers. Although many of workers accepted the management theory, many denied because of the use of stopwatch. Some workers thought the use of stopwatch is inhumane and they started to protest on it. Despite its controversy, the scientific management method definitely changed the way of the work environment and the way workers work into a positive way, and its form continues to be used even today. Taylorism free essay sample Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by UNIVERSITY OF SURREY For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service. Information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www. emeraldinsight. com/authors for more information. About Emerald www. emeraldinsight. com That aspect of the factory’s activities on which Thompson’s report focused is the inspection department described by Taylor[4,5]. He notes that in this department the women inspectors were employed at the task of inspecting ball-bearings for defects. This was work that required great skill and very close attention. When Taylor began work at the plant the women were employed ten-and-a-half hours per day. On Saturdays, a half holiday was allowed, so the women worked a 58-hour week which was the full limit allowed by law. We will write a custom essay sample on Taylorism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page For the first two months after piecework was introduced, the women continued to labour ten-and-a-half hours per day. It was found, however, that they had difficulty maintaining the degree of concentration required. On both day work and piecework, the inspectors became tired before the day was done. Accordingly, in August of 1897 the hours of labour were shortened from tenand-a-half to nine-and-a-half per day and a recess of five minutes was allowed in the middle of the morning and the middle of the afternoon. Notwithstanding this shortening of hours, both the quality and the quantity of output improved. Overall, the workers produced 33 per cent more work than they had the previous month. As the inspectors were still adjusting to piecework, Taylor decided it was not possible to determine to what extent the increased output was a result of the shorter hours. However, the next increase in hourly productivity he perceived as being solely the product of the reduction of worktime. Once convinced â€Å"things were working very smoothly† in the inspection department, Taylor reduced the workday to eight-and-a-half hours and increased the morning and afternoon breaks to ten minutes[8, p. ]. This hour’s reduction again had a positive effect on hourly output. The increase in productivity, however, was only sufficient to balance the reduction in hours. In other words, although overall output was maintained, it did not increase as it had in July. As output had only been maintained with the second reduction it was assumed the most efficient balance of worktime and work intensity had probably been achieved. Given this situation it was decided to leave the working day at eight-and-a-half hours and no further reductions in hours were introduced. In concluding the report, Thompson observed that it should not be believed that the eight-and-a-half hour day was an optimum that ought to be adopted in all situations. Different types of work would almost certainly require a different balance of working hours and work intensity. Knowledge of the optimum time schedule in any given case should not be presumed but should be based on careful, empirical testing. If this form of testing was undertaken, he concluded, a very substantial case could be developed for extending the reduction of working hours throughout industry: Taylorism and hours of work 11 JMH 1,2 2 It is not too much to claim †¦ that in a vast number of cases, especially in industrial establishments, the length of day might be shortened to the advantage of both the workman and the capitalist, provided that some incentive be given to the worker, such as the promise, if he is a piece-worker, that his rate per piece will not be cut if he exerts himself[8, p. 9]. A second most important observation regarding the limits of worktime reductions was also advanced. Thompson noted that logically there must be a limit to the extent to which the shortening of hours, in itself, has a positive effect on output.

william blake Essay

william blake Essay william blake Essay William Blake’s perspective using spiritual views in his poetry Society’s emphasis on religion has created many different views for people to think about. Some would agree that spirituality goes hand in hand with religion while others would disagree, arguing that the two are separate. William Blake was an unknown engraver who used his poetry to reflect his spiritual views on God and nature. William Blake is one of my favored poets because of his strong spirituality towards God, his perspective on life during innocence and then life after experience, and his use of nature throughout his creative work. In his Songs of Innocence and Experience, William Blake argues that there are â€Å"two contrary states of the human soul† and uses his view on God and nature to create his work but does not contrast between good and evil. William Blake said â€Å"there are two contrary states of the human soul†. What he meant was that there is a stage when one is young and innocent; and then comes a stage where one matures and goes through a va riety of experiences. It may cause disappointment and sadness however it will bring different outlooks on life. Blake uses few poems to contrast between innocence and experience, such as â€Å"The Chimney Sweeper† in the Song of Innocence. The poem reflects on a young Tom Dacre who was sold by his father and got his head shaved but is comforted by an Angel while asleep. â€Å"There’s little Tom Dacre, who cried when his head That curl’d like a lamb’s back, was shav’d†. While Tom was asleep, he had a dream that other sweepers were locked in coffins of black but by came an Angel who unlocked the coffins free. â€Å"And by came an Angel who had a bright key, And he open’d the coffins â€Å"They clothed me in the clothes of death,† It seems as if the children are being hurt by the parents, the chimney owners, and the churches. The last stanza displays a more negative view â€Å"And because I am happy,

My Thoughts on Pygmalion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

My Thoughts on Pygmalion - Essay Example In order to come to a proper personal conclusion on Shaw's Pygmalion, one must critically evaluate not only the seen plot and sequence of events in this play, but as well how the actual play was written, and in what context it was expected to be presented in. Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion is a play in which there are many different issues that take place, however most of them are actually incredibly subtle, and so they are often missed by some who view it. The main issue of the play however is one which is certainly not subtle, and that is in regards to the relationship that grows and becomes more imminent between Higgins and Doolittle; we see Higgins at the beginning as being a rather arrogant and cocky man, as he makes a bet regarding someone that did not even know they were involved; as well, we see that although at first Doolittle obviously does not purposely want to be interested in him, she does end up having feelings for him but then goes contrast to that and declares that she is going to marry someone else. Despite the intense central relationship that takes place between Higgins and Doolittle, the play ends up with her leaving t

Management accounting- R-11 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Management accounting- R-11 - Assignment Example Private organisations tend to have smoother management control process whereas public organisations experience more turbulence, conflicts and interruptions. Many scholars attribute these differences to the roles and purpose of private and public organisations in the society. Private organisations produce and sell products to consumers in the markets with objective of creating shareholders’ wealth. On the other hand, public organisations, such as state health centers and public schools undertake their operations for public interests. The distinct roles mean that there are diverse kinds of expectations and accountability that may can call for distinctive management control and decision-making processes (Ring & Perry. 1985). The problem of exercising management control in private sector versus public sector The contextual influence in the exercise of management control arises from the role of an organisation in the society. Whereas private organisations are means for creating sha reholders’ wealth, public organisations are instruments of public policy. The functions of each sector dictate the governance and leadership arrangements that are necessary to exercise management control for different diverse types of owners and shareholders. The approach to governance adopted in each sector subject general managers in each sector to different demands and expectations, which have far-reaching impact on exercise of management control. The role of each sector dictate ways of dealing with clients and users of services or goods offered in different ways, and this may also influence how management control is exercised. Public organisations are constrained in ways that limit how they exercise their management control and strategic choices being made. In most cases, discussions of how management control should be pursued in public organisations are subject to public disclosure. The government passes legislative mandates which tend t affect budgets and budgeting proc ess in a public organisation. As cited by Ring and Perry (1985), managers or leaders of public organisations are required to conform to budgets and legislative mandates passed by the state. As such, this is likely to limit the amount of money available for research on how to exercise management effectively. These mandates may even limit managers of public corporations from spending money on data collection and research thus influencing decision making process negatively. Management team of most public corporations must report to oversight committees, whose occupants are often political appointees, who are prone to leaking organisation’s undertakings and progress. This influences planning and management process in a negative way. These influences make management control problematic in public corporations than in for-profit organisations (Nutt, 2005). The external environment influences any organisation. Some of the attributes of external environment include cooperation, compet ition, political influence, cooperation and data availability. Private organisations can assess market situations through consumer buying behavior thereby enabling them to effectively manage their actions. Public organisations lack markets which can be source of revenue. As such, they depend on funds from oversight bodies that have tendency of setting reimbursement rules for the products or services offered by a public organisa

Private Law and Public Law Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Private Law and Public Law - Case Study Example The public law issue, on the other hand, refers to the criminal liability (for theft, robbery, physical injuries, kidnapping or death, among others) that happened on occasion of the theft or robbery aboard the cruise ship The Minnow. Specifically, the public law issue is whether the criminal law of Liberia (the country of the ship's flag), or the criminal law of Nassau, Key West, and Grand Cayman (the possible place where the crime was committed or any of the elements of the crime occurred) or the criminal law of the United States. For the purpose of the given problem however, the detailed discussion will be limited to tort law and contract law. At the outset, it should be emphasized that the resolution of the contract law issue must be resolved and decided under the law chosen and agreed by the contracting parties as stated in the contract. However, the problem of ascertaining the applicable law in the case of torts is scarcely less perplexing than in the case of contract. The reasons for this are as follows. First, there is a variety of different connecting factors that can be raised by the facts of the case: the place where the tort was committed; the residence, habitual residence, domicil, or nationality of the parties; and the place where the parties' relationship was centered. Second, in the situation where, for example, a wrongful act takes place in one country and the consequent injury in another, there is a serious definition problem in determining the place where the tort was committed. Third, a wide variety of tortuous issues may arise. For example, there can be issues of capacity (can Mrs. Lowell sue on behalf o f her husband), vicarious liability (is DWI liable for the acts of its employees), defences and immunities, damages, limitations on recovery, wrongful death, or intra-family immunities. Should the same law govern these issues Furthermore, there are different types of tort or delict, ranging from simple negligence to torts involving ships. Should the same rule apply regardless of the type of tort involved Fourth, if a foreign tort law is to be applied, this could lead to liability being imposed for torts unknown to the parties which may reflect radically different views and protect radically different interests from those recognized by the law of the parties. The common law rule in relation to foreign torts are derived from three leading cases.1 The law can be summed up as follows: there is a general rule of double actionability (there must be actionability by the law of the forum and the law of the place of the tort) with a flexible exception to this rule based on the concept of the most significant relationship. There is a double limbed choice of law rule derived from Phillips which means that a claimant who seeks to recover damages in the forum for what is an admitted tort according to the law of the place where the tort was committed will fail, unless the claimant proves that, had the defendant's act been done in the law of the forum, it would have constituted an actionable wrong by the forum law. Hence, the Lowells can claim only if the complained act is actionable under Liberian law or the law of the place where the tort was committed if the such act is also deemed to be an actionable tort in Florida (the forum). The second

Social Exclusions Relationship With Poverty

Social Exclusions Relationship With Poverty Is The Term Social Exclusion Just A New Euphemism For Poverty? Introduction In some quarters the terms social exclusion and poverty are used almost interchangeably. This has led some writers to question whether social exclusion is a catch all term, and a new euphemism for poverty. In recent decades unemployment levels have risen dramatically and continue to do so. This has led to a rise in the number of those who are long-term unemployed. It has also meant that there are now a large number of people dependent on benefits. During the same period social changes and successive government policies have served to widen the gap between rich and poor. Field (1996) believes that under the Conservatives, there were fundamental contradictions in social security policy which continued up until 1997 when John Major was voted out of power. Conservatives vowed to get people back to work and to reduce the role of the ‘nanny state’. The Government targeted benefits, which became means tested, thus increasing dependency and putting people into a poverty trap fro m which it was difficult to escape. This Field (1996) contends is the major contributory factor to social exclusion and has, he states, led to the development of an underclass whereby some people are denied the social and citizenship rights enjoyed by other members of society. This paper will examine what is meant by social exclusion and compare this with some debates about poverty to assess whether the term social exclusion might be regarded as a new euphemism for poverty. Social Exclusion The Social exclusion unit was originally set up in December 1997. The Government’s approach, in setting up the unit is to find ways of tackling what they call the intractable problems of teenage pregnancy, deprived neighbourhoods and troublesome behaviour. The Unit aims to achieve this through the use of what they term a connective approach. New Labour’s social exclusion unit has produced a number of reports on the root causes of social exclusion and on initiatives intended to tackle them. Government documents[1] maintain that people who are economically disadvantaged are also liable to be disadvantaged in other areas. They may live in areas with the poorest housing, and have less access to decent schools and health services. Poverty is not just going without ‘things’ The Child Poverty Action Group has identified the fact that the poorest members of society suffer from poor health, stress and stigma. Theorists speak of the poverty trap because people become stuck in a never ending cycle of making do and mending in situations where people would choose differently, were they given the option. Poverty curtails freedom of choice. The freedom to eat as you wish, to go where and when you like, to seek the leisure pursuits or political activities which others accept; all are denied to those without the resources†¦poverty is most comprehensively understood as a state of partial citizenship (Golding, ed. 1986 quoted in Browne, 1998,p.61) Social exclusion is not restricted to the poor in society. Traditional families in rural areas may be excluded from leisure opportunities and cut off from basic services such as public transport (Giddens, 2001). Government policy often gives with one hand and takes back with another. On the one hand it initiates drives for social inclusion, many of them aimed at young people, on the other, there have been moves to restrict the amount of Local Authority Housing to young, lone mothers and the curtailment of benefits for those who are not regarded as actively seeking employment. Some of this is related to other Government policies, not least the pledge to strengthen families. The result has been that an increasing number of young, unmarried mothers and their children live with their parents thus shifting the responsibility back into the private sphere. The 2004 government report on tackling social exclusion maintains that exclusion is a generational problem and that those who have parents living on the margins of society are more likely to be among the socially excluded in society. The reasons for social exclusion are connected. Thus, poverty, unemployment, and a lack of education are all facets of the same problem. Government recognises that they cannot tackle social exclusion unless they adopt an approach that deals with all these issues together (ODPM, 2004). The report maintains that its efforts are paying off and that there is a reduction in the number of households where no adult is working and that what they see as the seemingly intractable problems of single parents and youth offending are being addressed (ODPM, 2004:6). It should be noted here that while the Government expresses concern, and pledges to help excluded groups, at the same time it labels them and crime and illegitimacy become increasingly linked with poverty in public consciousness. Poverty The Department for Work and Pensions Website published a paper on 8th April 2004, it states that the Government is determined to tackle poverty and its causes, not just its symptoms and that this will involve joined-up Government action across the board.[2] Definitions of poverty are highly contested however, and some sort of measure is needed if any practical application is to be achieved. The concepts absolute and relative poverty, are most commonly used, and raise heated debate as scholars fail to agree on the issue. Absolute poverty is the most minimum standard of resources that people could be said to need and is defined by the poverty line or poverty rate. Because standards of living vary widely between countries the poverty rate is calculated as relative to the standards that apply in a given country (Giddens, 2001). This is the poverty index. There are a number of indicators that are used to measure poverty in Britain and to assess whether a person is living in absolute or re lative poverty and the poverty index is widely used in policy decision making. This is problematic because Government measures of poverty are taken as relative to the household incomes of the whole population. The Institute for Fiscal Studies argues that this: obscures the true picture (because)..Previous predictions were too optimistic because they largely did not take into account the fact that the governments target measure of child poverty is a relative one (Guardian,25/6/03).[3] Since Townsend’s work in the 1970s many theorists argue that there are large numbers of people in Britain who live in a state of relative poverty. One of the problems with speaking of relative poverty is that societies do not remain the same, rather they change and develop and with this is the need for understandings of relative poverty to change also. Western society in particular is becoming increasingly more affluent and standards of relative poverty are adjusted upwards in response to this (Giddens,2001). The British Medical Journal (2000) report looked at absolute and relative child poverty in developed countries where household income is more than fifty percent lower than the average. The report found that in the league table of relative child poverty one of the four bottom places was held by the UK. Nickell (2003) contends that since 1979 increased unemployment coupled with a rise in benefit payments and earnings that are index linked to prices rather than wages, has re sulted in a massive increase in the number of people in the UK who are living in relative poverty.[4] The concept of relative poverty causes problems in a number of areas rather than using household income as the regulator it might be better if statisticians calculated the prices of basic goods and services (Daily Telegraph 27/08/02). Another approach to measuring relative poverty is through people’s perceptions of what constitutes the necessities of life. The work of Mack and Lansley (1985, 1992) identified a number of categories that were considered to be necessary to modern day life. There were twenty six things that most respondents considered important and included new clothes, heating, a bath and indoor toilet. Relative poverty was thus measured by the presence or absence of those things. The research found that there was a rise in the number of people living in poverty in the 1980s, this was defined by the lack of three or more of the basic necessities. Between 1983 and 1990 when the two studies were undertaken the number of people living in poverty rose from 7.5 millio n to 11 million and those living in severe poverty (lacking more than 7 items) from 2.6 to 3.5 million (Mack and Lansley, 1992). Poverty is also defined by people’s ability or inability to participate in social activities such as visits to the cinema or school trips. Social Exclusion and Poverty In recent years there has been a concentration on social exclusion, which does not look at poverty simply in terms of a lack of material resources, but at the wider picture of people’s ability to participate in society. The 2004 Report maintains that social exclusion is inter-generational and that such families are more likely to be headed by a lone mother, more inclined to be on the fringes of petty crime and to be long term unemployed. Children from these families often follow the same patterns as their parents and grandparents, There is, however, little concrete evidence to suggest that children of socially excluded parents always follow that pattern, there are many who do not. Unemployment, single mothers and homelessness are mentioned alongside rising crime levels, drug abuse and anti-social behaviour. Chambez (2001) Argues that single parent households are very often among the poorest. English speaking countries have the highest number of single parents, and those who ar e working are among the lowest paid. Employment chances are still limited for women with children because employers expect that motherhood is more important than a career (Walby, 1990). These are parents who are attempting to be self-reliant and while family working tax credits may seem like a good idea it is, arguably the case, that they serve to encourage a dependency culture for people who might prefer to be independent. Lewis (1992) has argued that Britain is a strong male breadwinner state with gendered welfare policies, for example its inadequate childcare provision. While no effort is now made to stop women working, the assumption is that women will be secondary wage earners and, despite the large numbers of women in paid employment, they tend to be in short, part-time, low status work (Lewis,1992:165). As Pierson (1998) contends women (and in many cases their dependent children), because of the way in which society works against their proper enfranchisement, are more reliant on the welfare state. This is a state which looks on them with less favour than it does the masculine majority because the latter are generally in more secure, long-term, and better paid employment. Such and Walker (2004) contend that public and policy debate on the lives of children and the family has increasingly centred around the idea of responsibility. The Prime Minister has gone on record as saying that people need to be responsible for themselves and their families and that New Labour was offering a hand-up rather than a hand-out. The Conservative Government had been voted out because they had failed to act and had not cared about the disadvantaged in society. Their values were wrong and the time had come for a new set of values where the better off and the disadvantaged worked together. There is a new u nderclass in Britain Tony Blair has said, who are cut off from mainstream society. He argued for a better society one where everyone was included, provided that if they wanted to get something out then they had to put something in. On the one hand Blair was handing out a vision of a utopian Britain while at the same time implying that if people were on the margins of life then by and large it was from their own rootless morality and they needed to act responsibly in order to be part of the new society that New Labour would create. What was termed anti-social behaviour is spoken of in the same light as criminal behaviour and Blair said that these things would be rooted out. The following excerpt from an early speech by the Prime Minister is, arguably, a central factor behind much of the Government’s agenda to those it deems to be on the margins: Now, at the close of the twentieth century, the decline of old industries and the shift to an economy based on knowledge and skills has given rise to a new class: a workless class. In many countries- not just Britain-a large minority is playing no role in the formal economy, dependent on Benefits and the black economy. In 1979 only one in twelve non-pensioner households had no-one bringing in a wage, today one in five are in that position  (Blair, T. 1997 no page number) This kind of rhetoric perpetuates the stereotypical view that people who live on benefits are work shy and thus quite happy to live on handouts. Walker (1994) argues that public conceptions that people on benefits have taken the easy option are misplaced, in the majority of cases life becomes a greater struggle. She contends that: Despite sensational newspaper headlines, living on social assistance is not an option most people would choose if they were offered a genuine alternative. Most find themselves in that position because of some traumatic event in their lives; loss of a job, loss of a partner or the onset of ill health (Walker, 1994:9). The Government’s 2004 report on social exclusion conflates it with poverty. In this way the Government resorts to nineteenth century views of the undeserving poor. Social exclusion has come to be a catch all term for anything that authority sees as detrimental to the workings of a capitalist society. It has become the new euphemism for poverty because in capitalist societies poverty has always been regarded as some sort of crime. Conclusion Poverty means that people are unable to afford the goods that are associated with an acceptable standard of living, social exclusion on the other hand, refers to more than the lack of resources to obtain commodities, it is, rather, a process of being shut out, totally or in part, from the social, cultural, political and economic systems which contribute to a person’s integration into society (Haralambos et al, 2000). Nolan and Whelan (1996) contend that, Talking of social exclusion rather than poverty highlights the gap between those who are active members of society and those who are forced to the fringe, the increasing risks of social disintegration, and the fact that, for the persons concerned and for society, this is a process of change and not a fixed or static situation (Nolan and Whelan, 1996:190). The effects of social exclusion, the 2004 Report further maintains, result in huge costs to society and to the economy. It would seem therefore that Government concerns over social exclusion are motivated primarily by budgetary concerns. Making social exclusion the new euphemism for poverty effectively criminalises those who in many instances are poor as a result of successive Government policies rather than through any fault of their own. Bibliography Alcock, P. 1997 2nd ed. Understanding Poverty. London, Macmillan. Blackman, S. 1997 â€Å"Destructing a Giro: a critical and ethnographic study of the youth underclass† in Macdonald R. ed. 1997 Youth, the Underclass, and Social Exclusion. London, Routledge Browne, K.1998. (2nd ed.) An Introduction to Sociology. Cambridge, Polity Press. Chambez, C. 2001. â€Å"Lone-Parent Families in Europe: A Variety of Economic and Social Circumstances† Social Policy and Administration 2001, 35, 6, Dec, 658-671 Field, F. 1996. Stakeholder Welfare. London, IEA Giddens, A. 2001. (4th ed). Sociology. Cambridge, Polity Press Haralambos et al 2000. 5th ed Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. London, Collins Mack, J. and Lansley,S. 1985. Poor Britain. London, George Allen and Unwin. Mack, J. and Lansley,S. 1992. Breadline Britain 1990s The Findings of the Television Series. London, London Weekend Television. Mack, J. and Lansley,S. 1985. Poor Britain. London, George Allen and Unwin. Mack, J. and Lansley,S. 1992. Breadline Britain 1990s The Findings of the Television Series. London, London Weekend Television. Nickell, S. RES conference paper April 2003 Poverty and Worklessness in Britain Nolan, B. and Wheelan, C. 1996 Resources: Deprivation and Poverty. Oxford, Clarendon Press Such, E. and Walker, R. 2004 â€Å"Being responsible and responsible beings: childrens understanding of responsibility† Children and Society 18 (3) Jun 2004, pp.231-242 Walby, S. 1986. Patriarchy at Work. Cambridge: Polity. Walker,C. 1994 â€Å"Managing Poverty†. Sociology Review April, 1994 p.9 The Daily Telegraph 27th August 2002 The Guardian Newspaper 25th June 2003 Townsend, P. 1979. Poverty in the United Kingdom. Harmondsworth, Penguin. Blair, T. 1997 The Will to Win, http://www.socialexclusionunit.gov.uk/downloaddoc.asp?id=59 (no page numbering) http://www.socialexclusionunit.gov.uk/downloaddoc.asp?id=44 Mental Health and Social Exclusion Consultation Document ODPM 2004. Count Me In http://www.socialexclusionunit.gov.uk/downloaddoc.asp?id= ODPM. 2004 Tackling Social Exclusion: Taking Stock and Looking to the Future http://www.socialexclusionunit.gov.uk/downloaddoc.asp?id=13 page 17 Community Care, 2005 communitycare.co.uk/articles/article.asp?liarticleid=48388liSectionID=30sKeys=anti+social+behaviourliParentID=14th April (no page numbers). 1 [1]http://www.socialexclusionunit.gov.uk/downloaddoc.asp?id [2] http://www.dwp.gov.uk/publications/dwp/2004/childpov-response/govt-response.pdf [3] Appendix One [4] http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp0579.pdf Nickell, S. RES conference paper April 2003

An Economic Perspective of Religious Organizations Abstract Essay

An Economic Perspective of Religious Organizations Abstract In the process of studying religions, we often overlook the secular aspects of religious organizations. This paper examines the basic flows of money in different spiritual organizations, and attempts to correlate the types of income with the structure of the priestly hierarchy. This analysis is by no means comprehensive. In the end, more questions are raised than are answered. Introduction For all the mythological and sociological components of religion, religious organizations operate under the same restrictions as any other secular establishment. Religious organizations can be characterized as multi-generational institutions with distinct rights, privileges, and liabilities; the essential definition of a corporation. While the sources of income and the liabilities are substantially different from a standard company, an economic analysis of religious behavior allows us to compare religions in certain areas. The goal of this paper is to ignore the philosophy, and view religion with a purely economic perspective1. In this analysis of religious organizations, I will attempt to identify the sources of revenue for different religious organizations, explain different hierarchies, and attempt to draw some conclusions of the interactions of money and organization. This topic is expansive, and as such I will often simplify or identify further fields of research, rather than getting too off topic. In the end, I hope to provide a basic understanding of the complexities of religious finance. Revenue The single most important economic means of distinguishing religions is through the source of money. Adam Smith, in his seminal work The Wealth o... ...pter inspired the idea of this paper. Raines, John. Marx on Religion. Temple Univ. Press. 2002 -A primer on Marx’s various writings on religion; a rather condensed work. Marx had some rather complex ideas, and his writing is given to misleading quotes, which is why I do not quote his work. (Author Unknown) â€Å"Evaluation the Evidence: Religious Economies and Sacred Canopies.† American Sociological Review 54 1989 -Sociology papers are difficult for an outsider to read (to say the least), but this paper deals with the topic in a sufficiently interesting manner to merit its mention. Hardin, Russell. "The Economics of Religious Belief and Practice" Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics. 1997. -A basic analysis of (western) religions and their finances. Useful article, and written in a language that I can understand (thanks to a minor in economics).

Preference Share and Convertible Note Essay

The issue to be considered here is if the legal form of a preference share or a convertible note is paramount or more important than all other things? I do believe this statement is not appropriate and the substance of a preference share or a convertible note is more important than the legal form. Body From the perspective of users, the disclosure in financial statements is the most vital approach to provide information about the financial position, performance and changes in financial position of the reporting entity. As the equity and the liability always lead to different effects to the reporting entity, so the disclosure of the equity and the liability could lead to users’ different decisions. Therefore, when classifying the equity and the liability, the reporting entity should adhere to the principle of substance over form in AASB Framework para. 35. Based on the above statement, some analysis of this case are as follow: 1. As shown in AASB 132 para. AG25, preference shares, which are redeemable on a specific date or at the option of the holder, should be classified as liabilities rather than equity, and the reason is that the issuer has an obligation to transfer assets to the holder of the preference shares; however, preference shares, which are redeemable at the option of the issuer, should be classified as equity rather than liabilities, since there has no obligations for the issuer to transfer assets to the shareholder. AASB 132 para. AG25 and AG26 also outline that, the classification for non- redeemable preference shares is based on the substance of the arrangement or the rights attach to the shares, rather than the legal form. 2. As shown in Framework, the convertible notes would be classified as equity if conversion to equity is the probable outcome, while the convertible notes would be classified as liabilities if redemption at maturity is the probable outcome. Or as shown in AASB 132 para. 29, convertible notes should be classified separately based on two components: liabilities, since convertible notes are contractual arrangements to deliver cash or another financial asset; and equity, since convertible notes are call options granting the holder the right, for a specified period of time, to convert it into a fixed number of ordinary shares of the entity. In addition, AASB 132 para. AG32 illustrate  that n conversion of a convertible instrument at maturity, the entity derecognizes the liability component and recognizes it as equity, and the original equity component remains as equity. Conclusion Base on the above analysis, I do believe that this statement in this is not appropriate. Since when classified a preference share or a convertible note, according to AASB Framework and AASB standards, the substance over form.

Factors Affecting the Biotic and Abiotic features Essay Example

Factors Affecting the Biotic and Abiotic features Essay Example Factors Affecting the Biotic and Abiotic features Paper Factors Affecting the Biotic and Abiotic features Paper Factors affecting the role that the relationships between biotic and biotic factors contribute to the relationship between foliage and ground coverer Effie Electrocutions:A functioning ecosystem is totally reliant on the way in which factors such as biotic and biotic interrelate and create a balance of living and non-living. Biotic factors are those features of the environments of organisms arising from the activities of the other living organisms, relating to, produced by, or caused by living organisms (M. Than/ M. Hickman 2003:16). Biotic factors are non-living chemical and physical factors in the environment which include light, temperature, water, atmospheric gases, and wind as well as soil. The six major biotic factors are water, sunlight, oxygen, temperature, soil and climate (http://el. ERDA. Usage. Army. Mil/MIS/bicorn l/ HTML labia tic . HTML). Biotic and biotic factors combine to create a system or more precisely, an ecosystem which is a community of living and nonliving things considered as a unit. Biotic and biotic factors are interrelated (Growler 1997:106). If one factor is changed or removed, it impacts the availability of other resources within the system (http://library. Thinkers. Org). If an biotic factor is changed, such as soil nutrient levels, this may affect the growth of a biotic factor such as grass and trees, in turn making the plants decrease in population. This subtle change in turn affects biotic factors such as large organisms that need the plants to survive. This decreases the number of large organisms and affects the balance of the ecosystem. Ground cover is those herbaceous plants, small shrubs and non-vascular plants growing beneath the tree and shrub canopy (museum. Gob. Ins. Ca/man/nature/ nuns/ glossary. HTML. ) Ground cover is used for two main purposes; to hide the round beneath, or to protect it from erosion or drought. Foliage cover is the percentage of a fixed area covered by crowns of plants surrounded by a vertical projection of the outermost perimeter of the spread of the foliage (www. FSP. Fed. Us/re/ Fremont/scan/text/ APPENDIX X_C. HTML). Ground cover and foliage cover are along with biotic and biotic factors interrelated. The quantity of vegetation that lives in a particular area is totally dependent on the percent canopy cover that is above. If the role of photosynthesis; the process by which plants convert water and carbon dioxide into reverberates, using sunlight as the source of energy and the aid of chlorophyll (www. Surds. Haw ii. Du /SURDS glossary. HTML) is relied upon, ground areas with a high percentage of canopy cover will have a decreased amount of living vegetation underneath, as the process of photosynthesis cannot be efficiently accomplished. The relationship between biotic and biotic factors affects the relationship between ground cover and foliage cover as the two factors interrelate and assist or hinder the others actions. Aim: To determine the possible relationships between biotic factors, which include the varying organisms which surround an area, and biotic factors, such as the temperature of an allocated area, humidity, Ph levels and nutrient availability to see how they play a role in the relationship between ground cover and foliage cover. Hypothesis: If there is more overhead foliage cover than there will be less ground cover (in comparison to an area with no overhead foliage cover) because less sunlight and rain will reach the ground, the temperature will decrease and more animals will stand on and eat the ground cover that is there (due to the reduced temperature). Materials:lax mum measuring tappet small stakes Clinometers 1 x hammer lax permanent marker lax roll of marking tappets of good quality striving manometer 1 x canopy densitometer lax sheet of graph appear x thermometers empty AL drink bottles CACM ruler with millimeters marked outpoured:1. The XML transect was marked out by measuring out mum Of string. The stakes Were then placed into the ground at the appropriate measurements and the string was wrapped around as shown in Figure 1 . 2. The length of the string was marked at mm intervals with marking tape and he numbers were written on with permanent marker as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 :Peacetime of the marking tape along the mum string. 3. The gradual slope of the gradient was then taken to determine how steep the selected land area was. 4. This was done with the manometer at zero to half meter by placing each end of the manometer at both beginning and end of each half meter and taking a measurement. 5. This was then continued for thirty meters and was then graphed. See Figure 3. Figure 3 :Peacetime of the manometer at every half meter point. 6. The percentage foliage cover was then taken to determine how much light to though the tree leaves onto the ground below. This was done using the canopy densitometer at zero to one half meters. 7. The densitometer was held directly upwards and looked through. The percent coverage was noted. This was continued for thirty meters. See Figure 48. The percentage ground cover was then taken at every half meter by determining how covered the ground was by grass and plants etc. This number was recorded and this was continued for thirty meters. 9. A description of every meter was taken to investigate was lived there and also how it lived there. Animal excretions and flowers etc. Were taken into account, as well as leaf litter. These results were put into table form. 10. The temperature for the selected area was taken both in the shade; by placing the thermometer under a tree, and in the sun; by placing the thermometer in the open at approximately 12 oclock. It was made sure that there was no human interference when the temperatures were taken. 1 1 . Thermometers were placed out standing upright at five minute intervals and the temperature was recorded. This was repeated over a period of 1 0 days. 12. The rain fall had to be measured so a rain gauge was made. A AL soft drink outlet was cut in half, and then the upper half was inverted to create a funnel. 3. Two gauges were made for under the tree canopy, and out in the open. The measurements were recorded over a period of ten days. The results were then put into table form. 14. A pitfall trap was then constructed to determine what species of animals lived there. A fifteen centimeter square hole was dug in both the undercover and open sections of the belt transect. 15. Two small rocks were placed at e ither side of the hole. The hole was then covered by a large rock resting on the two smaller rocks. See Figure 6. 16. The traps were then left over night, and the findings recorded.

The Love and Devotion of Lady Macbeth Essay Example

The Love and Devotion of Lady Macbeth Essay Example The Love and Devotion of Lady Macbeth Paper The Love and Devotion of Lady Macbeth Paper Power, and the pursuit of it, can make the strongest person weak. An ironic twist because power is supposed to be the opposite of weakness, but they can be one and the same. The primal thirst for power can lead to people committing atrocities whether in real life or those who are portrayed in fiction. In Shakespeare’s Macbeth, Macbeth is susceptible to be corrupted by the yearning for power and Lady Macbeth does horrible deeds out of love for her husband. Although she appears evil, she loves her husband so much that she is willing to be unsexed, give her sanity and plot treason for her husband’s ambitions. Lady Macbeth is a woman, and as a woman she is automatically and unjustly associated with being a soft and warm-hearted person. As she vehemently pleads here, â€Å"†¦Come you spirits/ That tend on mortal thoughts! Unsex me here/†¦ come to my woman’s breasts/ And take my milk for gall†, (Shakespeare, Act I, Scene V, L 40-47) she desires to lose these qualities to do what is necessary of her. This is one of the most powerful things that can be done for another. The mere fact that Lady Macbeth is willing to call on evil spirits for this unwieldy process shows that she has the utmost love and devotion for her husband. One cannot overlook the irony of Lady Macbeth calling on the very same evil spirits that predicted her husband to be to king, to help herself have the power to make Macbeth the leader of Scotland. Also that is she had truly gotten her wish, then she would have lost one of woman’s greatest gifts, the ability to have children or an heir to the throne. Later in the play, as a result of Lady Macbeth’s hardened actions, she is beginning to lose her sanity. In all states of consciousness, Macbeth’s well-being still plagues her mind. As she is sleep walking, she is trying to assure Macbeth and sooth him into relaxing sleep, portrayed here, â€Å"†¦I tell you yet again, Banquo’s buried; / He cannot come out on’s grave†. Act I, Scene V, L 60-61) As one can see here, one of her innermost desires is for Macbeth to be happy, but they suffer from the same illness, their conscience, which constantly reminds them of the mayhem they have created. This leads her to lose her most treasured possession, her mind, because of her actions out of love for Macbeth. Eventually it drives her to complete madness and leads her to take her life, a martyr for M acbeth’s path to kingship. The binding guilt that tormented Lady Macbeth’s mind was not unfounded. Although her hands did not commit the murder of King Duncan, she is directly responsible. She was the driving force behind Macbeth and pushed him into the murder, even when he had his doubts about the worth of becoming king. Lady Macbeth’s sheer devotion and love for Macbeth did what was necessary, not what was nice, for Macbeth’s aspirations. As one can see, â€Å"†¦ look like the innocent flower/ But be the serpent under’t†¦ you shall put/ This night’s great business into my dispatch;† (Act I, Scene V, 64-67), Lady Macbeth set out a foolproof plan to ease the burden of stress that is weighing on Macbeth. The plot and acts of treason and regicide are tokens of Lady Macbeth’s devotion because royalty in medieval times were said to be chosen by the divine. In order for lady Macbeth to hazard her life and potentially her afterlife for Macbeth’s temporal desires is just another of the many signs of love and devotion. As one can now see, Lady Macbeth is not an evil character but an extremely realistic one who gave all of her strength for her husband’s weakness. She is somebody who out of love and devotion is willing to give her femininity, her sanity and plot treason for her husband. Lady Macbeth gives everything she possibly can for the happiness of another, the true definition of love. All of this is done because of Macbeth’s weakness when he saw the potential for power. One can only wonder how far he would have gotten if he did not have the love and devotion of Lady Macbeth to aid him on his journey. Shakespeare, William. Macbeth. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.

Modeling and guided practice in a literacy lesson Research Paper

Modeling and guided practice in a literacy lesson - Research Paper Example For instance, in a literacy lesson, the teacher may give the learners an example then allow them do another task to test their comprehension based on the example. If the educator is teaching about verbs, the educator may focus on attaining the learning objective then ask the learners to identify verbs from a listing of words by reading them loudly. Through this guided practice McCormack  & Pasquarelli (2012) indicate that it is achievable to achieve a great percentage of proficiency from the learners. The learners may then be given a chance for comprehension of what verbs are through silent reading after guided practice by their teachers. Modeling, on the other hand, refers to a demonstration of the thinking procedure (McCormack  & Pasquarelli, 2012). This explains the manner in which something is done and why it is done. Through the modeling process, the teacher takes the learner through the learning procedure, the demonstration made are explicit, and the students are expected to be actively involved in these demonstrations (McCormack  & Pasquarelli, 2012). The authors also argue that in modeling repetition must ensue and think aloud statements used (McCormack  & Pasquarelli, 2012). This allows the learners get actively involved in comprehension lessons. In a literacy lesson setting, the teacher may focus on aiding the learners think through the ideas of the author as opposed to the outcome of the comprehension. This is a good example of self modeling whilst reading the comprehension. If the learners focus on one concept while reading they are likely to get the concept being portrayed by the author. For a lesson to be successful, it is vital to assess if the learners have comprehended what they have read. According to the American Education Publishing (2012) it is possible to know what a student has read if they are able to recount what they have read in a chronological manner. For

Federal Reserve Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Federal Reserve - Essay Example The Board of Governors is appointed by the President who controls the functions of the Federal Reserve System. There are Federal Reserve Banks which operates in major cities of US. The major objectives of the Federal Reserve System are aimed at the welfare of the US economy. The Federal Reserve System in US is responsible for maximizing the employment opportunities in US, stabilizing the prices in US economy and achieving stability in long term interest rates (Wells 58). The monetary policy is designed by the Federal Reserve System of US. The other functions of the central banking system in US include regulation of the banking structure that includes the government and the private players as well as the advisory councils. The central bank also provides financial services to other depository agencies. The overall financial stability of the economy of US is the responsibility of the Federal Reserve System. Before the Federal Reserve System was set up in 1913, there were around 30000 cu rrencies in the economy of US. Many business houses and even the drug dealers could issue currency notes for financial transactions. This created a situation of instability in the economy of US. ... Apart from this, the various currencies in US had different denominations and values. The absence of a standardized currency created difference and problems among the traders. The business, imports and exports all suffered due to the presence of varying numbers of currencies and absences of standardized form of currency in the economy of US. The Federal Reserve System of the US was created to standardize the currency of the economy of US and thereby establish a position of stability in the economy (Grey 98). The Federal Reserve System provides a central banking system to the economy of US where the business and he individuals could deposit their money in the standard currency of US dollar. The depositors could also withdraw their money from the Federal Reserve System at the time of need. These withdrawals took place in the same standardized currency of US dollars. Thus the Federal Reserve System could drive away the intermediate currencies and their varying values and established a s tandardized form of currency to be followed by the customers and traders in order provide an organized monetary system and sufficiency in liquidity. The US economy invariably needs the Federal Reserve System in the economy without whose functions there would be ample distortions in the economy that would hamper the economic growth of US. This could be understood from the roles and responsibilities of the Federal Reserve System and the implication on the US financial and economic system in absence of its role. The Federal Reserve System plays the role of balancing between the centralized role of the government for the welfare of the economy and the private interests of the